III. Integrating Service-Learning into Programs and Courses

Introduction | Understanding Service-Learning | Connecting Service-Learning to National Standards
Infusing Service-Learning into Your Teacher Education Program: A Comprehensive Model Approach
Institutionalizing Service-Learning in Your Program | Integrating Service-Learning into a Specific Course | Teaching the Pedagogy of Service-Learning

Introduction

• analyze service-learning projects for their effectiveness in meeting community and academic needs.
  
• scrutinize activities (from other teachers) for service-learning effectiveness.
  
• make connections between service-learning and national teacher assessment standards.
  
• analyze your existing program (or a specific course) to determine where service-learning might 'fit'.
  
• brainstorm your first service-learning project, and identify the goals it would meet.
  
• identify specific course goals and community needs, then list potential service-learning activities that meet those goals.
  
• consider service-learning variables, including definition, duration, intensity, and recipients of service.
  
• select appropriate reflection activities for your students to engage in after the service-learning project is over.
  
• formulate research questions on service-learning and teacher education.

With thoughtful consideration, the following activities may function as a springboard for you as the foundation of service-learning is laid.

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Understanding Service-Learning

Service-Learning Quadrant


When no connection exists between the service project and the academic activities of a classroom, the project involves Unrelated Learning. For example, a project in which students donate canned goods for Thanksgiving but which is not integrated into lessons or discussed in class would be an Unrelated Learning service project. In contrast, a service project which is an integral component of a lesson or unit would by an Integrated Learning Activity. For example, a History class which gains experience analyzing primary sources (such as historical newspaper articles, or settlers' diaries) in order to develop a community history exhibit would be implementing an Integrated Service activity.

A second dimension of school-based service concerns the quality of service provided in a project. Low Service projects address a need that is not a true community need or are so poorly organized that students are not able to provide a service. High Service projects, in contrast, are well-organized, developmentally appropriate, and meet an important community need.

The most effective service-learning projects are those that fall in the upper right section of the quadrant; are "high service" oriented activities that also "clearly integrate learning". Understanding how to create a service-learning project that is "high service" and "highly integrated" into the curriculum is an important first step. The following activity asks that you analyze examples of service-learning to determine where they fall on the quadrant.

Activity

Quadrant Activity

1. Read each case example below. Then determine what quadrant section it should be placed in.

2. Choose one case and brainstorm ideas for improving it to provide both Integrated Learning and High Service.

Cases

A. The teachers at Joaquin Middle School decide that all their students should be doing community service. In order to avoid a logistical nightmare, they contract with the local volunteer center to place three hundred students in nonprofit agencies and to track the number of hours students work. The students are given a wide variety of assignments.

B. The 9th grade English teachers at Mandalay High School organize their curriculum around the theme of community. In addition to reading literature that focuses on community issues, all students are asked to volunteer during the school year in either their school or their local community. An adult volunteer is the service coordinator; she helps place students in a wide variety of projects that run from working on a farm to volunteering in a blood bank.

C. Mr. Selmon uses homelessness as a central theme for a nine week unit in his English class. In addition to reading a novel about homeless youth and several poems, students write and act out in class a series of skits on different problems faced by the homeless.

D. Ms. Ramirez organizes her general science class to increase flood preparedness in the students' neighborhoods. Students learn about weather conditions which lead to flooding and about their community's plans for responding to flooding from speakers from the Weather Bureau and Red Cross. The project culminates when students create flood preparedness pamphlets in English and Spanish and go in teams of two to distribute the pamphlets to different neighborhoods.

In the following space, note which case you selected and your ideas for improving it.

Connecting Service-Learning to National Standards

Activity

Choose two INTASC principles and comment on ways in which a service-learning experience might help students meet these standards.

Principle #1: The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry and structures of the disciplines he or she teaches and can create learning experiences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for students.

Principle #2: The teacher understands how children learn and develop, and can provide learning opportunities that support their intellectual, social and personal development.

Principle #3: The teacher understands how students differ in their approaches to learning and creates instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners.

Principle #4: The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage student development of critical thinking, problem solving and performance.

Principle #5: The teacher uses an understanding of individual and group motivation and behavior to create a learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation.

Principle #6: The teacher uses knowledge of effective verbal, nonverbal and media communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom.

Principle #7: The teacher plans instruction based upon knowledge of subject matter, students, the community, and curriculum goals.

Principle #8: The teacher understands and uses formal/informal assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social and physical development of the learner.

Principle #9: The teacher is a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (students, parents, and other professionals in the learning community) and who actively seeks out opportunities to grow professionally.

Principle #10: The teacher fosters relationships with school colleagues, parents and agencies in the larger community to support students' learning and well-being.

Which two principles did you select? How would Service Learning help students achieve these principles?

Infusing Service-Learning in your Teacher Education Program: A Comprehensive Model Approach

However, findings indicating that service-learning positively influences K-12 students' academic and social development suggest that teacher education programs also need to educate candidates in the pedagogy of service-learning. Teacher education students should learn the definition of service-learning, results of research on this approach, the relationship between service-learning and other methods, the steps in a service-learning project, and best practices in service-learning. Additionally, candidates should gain experience planning, leading, and reflecting on service-learning projects with K-12 students. The most effective model, then, is a comprehensive, logically organized model in which students first experience service-learning and then design and implement their own service-learning projects in placement classrooms.

In the following activity, you are asked to brainstorm ways in which service-learning might be comprehensively integrated in a Teacher Education program at your institution.

Activity

Identify a program in your department. For each course in the program, brainstorm a service-learning project and the goals it would meet. Use the following program as an example:

Institutionalizing Service-Learning in Your Program

• leaning structures and incentive systems
  
• high quality implementation
  
• credible evaluation
  
• perceived "fit" with local needs and culture
  
• readily available help
  
• a powerful advocate or sponsor
  
• a staff position devoted to the innovation
  
• a budget line devoted to the innovation (Pickeral, 1999)

Activity

The following questions are intended to help you clarify the state of service-learning in your department or program and to identify existing resources and potential obstacles to institutionalization.

A. Describing your course

B. Planning the service-learning project

1. After you have identified your goals, the next step is to plan the type of service project you will use. Preservice teachers can participate in a variety of types of service activities such as teaching-related activities, producing a product or performance, advocacy, or working at a human service agency. Following are some examples of service activities in each category which could be integrated into teacher preparation courses:

Teaching, tutoring or mentoring activities	Candidates can engage in teaching and mentoring activities which provide service beyond that offered in standard field experiences, for example tutoring at risk or special needs students; tutoring before or after school, on weekends. Preservice teachers can teach populations not normally encountered in field placements, e.g., senior citizens, non-english speaking folks, or prisoners. Teaching candidates can create or assist with support groups, e.g., for children of divorce. Candidates can develop and sponsor community learning events, e.g., a family read-in, homework hotline, a science fair, a reenactment of an historical event.
Creating a product or performance	Students can develop a product or performance in which they apply their knowledge for others' benefit. Products can include research reports, brochures, and other materials. Performances can include presentations or exhibits. For example, students could create a brochure for parents on assisting with homework or a video on young children's nutritional needs. Preservice teachers could create a nature trail for a science methods course, or could translate educational materials for Spanish speaking parents. Students could conduct research on available recreational opportunities for youth and present a report to a city council.
Advocacy activities	Preservice teachers can lobby to change laws or policies to improve education or to seek services on behalf of a particular population. Examples of advocacy activities include circulating petitions, writing letters to elected officials, speaking before groups. Advocacy can also include direct service in which students team up with a student or family to assist them in seeking services. For example, students could write letters to local employers advocating parental leaves to visit schools. They could write letters on behalf of uninsured children.
Service at an agency	Preservice teachers can assist at a human service agency or community site, performing services defined by the site.

(Adapted from K. McPherson)

Activity

2. In addition to varying by type, service-learning experiences can also vary along other dimensions. Specifically, service-learning projects can vary according to who defines the experience, the duration and intensity of the experience, and the recipients of service. In general, studies show that longer service experiences and those demanding more of the student's time produce greater gains (Reck, 1978; Conrad, 1980; Conrad & Hedin, 1982; Crosman, 1989; Williams, 1993).

Following are examples of several dimensions along which service learning experiences can vary.


Project Definition
Service activities can vary according to whether they are defined by the instructor and/or student(s) or a social service agency or partner.

1.________________________________________________________
Course participant-defined           Shared definition                      Community partner-Defined

Project Duration
Activities can range in duration from one-time experiences to those involving short term or long term involvement.

2._______________________________________________________
One-time activity                     Short-term project/service                      Long term project/service

Project Intensity
Service experiences can vary in intensity from high intensity experiences (involving a large time investment relative to the total time available) to less intense experiences (involving lower time investment).

3._______________________________________________________
Low intensity                                                                                High intensity


Recipients of Service
Students can serve a number of types of populations, ranging from children and adolescents to senior citizens and the disabled. For example, if the goal is to create greater acceptance of diversity, teacher educators may want to involve students with ethnically or socioeconomically different groups or individuals. If, however, the goal is to prepare students for teaching, faculty may want to involve students in tutoring children or adolescents. Recipients of service will vary according to the goals of the course.
Activity

Given the goals of your course, answer the following questions about the potential characteristics of your service-learning project.

Project Definition

1. How will your project be defined, and why? Rank order the following according to the goals for your course:

a. A project that you define

b. A project defined by students

c. A project defined by an agency staff member/community partner

d. A project defined cooperatively by you and a community partner

Project Duration

2. Given the goals of your course, and the needs of your students and the community, which option seems best matched: one-time project, short-term project, long-term project?

Project intensity

 

3. Once you've decided on the project duration, how intense should student participation be within the time frame you've chosen? (See quadrant.)

Project Duration and Intensity Quadrant

Recipients of Service

What populations do you want preservice teachers to work with and/or better understand and why?

• Course goals for student learning
  
• The community partner's goals, resources, and needs
  
• The type of service activity
  
• Length of the academic term
  
• Number of weeks, days, and hours students will be available
  
• Students' skills and limitations
  
• Responsibility for orientation and supervision
  
• Procedures for handling problems
  
• Communication during the service-learning experience
  Activity

Think of an area within a 2 mile radius of your college or university, then:

a. Using the following map and table, write the number of each institution or agency in the correct location.

1. Chamber of commerce	7. Hospitals
2. Nursing home	8. Community center
3. Senior citizen activity center	9. Libraries
4. Red Cross	10. Parks and recreation facilities
5. United Way	11. K-12 schools
6. Other nonprofit agencies	12. Day care centers and preschools

b. For each site, brainstorm the service opportunities it might provide for students.

 

1. Chamber of commerce
2. Nursing home
3. Senior citizen activity center
4. Red Cross
5. United Way
6. Other nonprofit agencies
7. Hospitals
8. Community center
9. Libraries
10. Parks and recreation facilities
11. K-12 schools
12. Day care centers and preschools

• are continuous (occuring before, during, and after a project)
  
• are connected (link the service project with academic goals)
  
• are guided
  
• allow feedback and assessment
  
• help to clarify values
  

Eyler, Giles & Schmiede (1996) note that reflection activities can involve reading, writing, doing, and/or telling. Reading activities can expose students to books or articles which explain the importance of service or case studies of lives of individual service. Alternatively, course readings might address the service problem itself. Regardless of the type of social problem (e.g., AIDS, homelessness), there are fiction and nonfiction pieces which can provide students with an in-depth understanding of the problem and issues they are likely to encounter in their service. Students can reflect on service-related readings in class discussions, short writes, journals, or analysis papers.

The most common type of written reflection assignment is a personal journal. However, as Hatcher and Bringle (1999) note, personal journals "do not necessarily challenge students to integrate their service experience with the course objectives" (p. 13). If the goal is to encourage students to apply course concepts to a social problem, directed writing activities may be better. One example of a directed writing activity is a double entry journal in which students write about their service experience on the left page and about course content on the opposite page (Hatcher & Bringle, 1999). A second type of guided writing activity is a service-learning portfolio. This collection of documents includes both processes and products from the service-learning experience, such as photos, evaluation reports, comments from supervisors or community members, and publicity.

Doing or performance activities are a third avenue for reflection. For example, students can express their responses to a service-learning experience in drawings, murals, sculpture, photo displays, song lyrics, or poetry. In service-learning theater, students write and perform scripts based on records of critical incidents at their sites.

One of the most common telling activities is the informal discussion (Eyler, Giles, & Schmiede, 1996). Students can partner with various individuals for informal discussions; peers, community members, and/or service recipients. Telling about service-learning can also occur in more structured formats, for example, presentations and debates. Hatcher and Bringle (1999) describe one type of structured reflection session which can be used to help students understand the conflicts often experienced during service activities and clarify their values. In this session, "participants are asked to a) list words/phrases that describe their senses/feelings at the service site, b) list words/phrases that describe their actions at the service site, c) list words/phrases that describe their thoughts at the service site, and d) describe what contraditions they sensed at the service site.

Technology can extend the opportunities for reflection on service-learning, particularly shared reflection based in learning communities. To give only a few examples, students can post open-ended responses to their service experiences on a listserv. Web forums can feature topics or quotes for discussion posted by faculty, students, and/or community members. Students can also create powerpoint presentations and web pages which synthesize their service-learning experiences.

Teaching the Pedagogy of Service-Learning

Introducing teacher candidates to service learning includes making connections between candidates' prior knowledge of experiential, contextual and situated learning theories, their experiences and service learning. Definitions of service-learning are presented at this stage, including differences between community service and service-learning and elements of high quality service-learning projects.

The quadrant exercise (p. 25) is particularly useful for helping students to understand differences and elements of effective service learning. After the distinction between community service and service-learning is made clear, students should be introduced to other elements of high quality service-learning which include: collaboration, student voice, civic responsibliity, reflection, and evaluation. These elements can then be applied through analysis of a case study. (See pages 26-27 for sample case studies.)

Although teacher candidates may have had opportunities to participate in service learning activities and discuss theories that connect the strategy to other learning theories, they need to be systematically taught the components of project development and provided with opportunities to analyze each component and the way it contributes to student learning. In most cases, this is best accomplished in a methods class or one which has an accompanying field experience such as a practicum or a student teaching seminar.

There are many approaches to identifying the steps in a service-learning project. Following is a list that may assist beginning s practitioners and faculty integrate the pedagogy into teacher education courses:

1. Community assessment
2. Project development
3. Project implementation
4. Evaluation
5. Celebration
   

1. Community Assessment

   This important initial component sets the stage for the project and accomplishes two very important things. It teaches the importance of having those planning the service learning project involved in assessing the community assets and needs, and demonstrates to teacher candidates some methods for helping students to take ownership for the project from the beginning.
   
   Service-learning is a reciprocal process. Because of this reciprocity, teacher candidates need to understand the importance of developing an appreciation of the values, culture, and traditions of the community in which the project will be developed. During this initial stage, faculty have an opportunity to integrate service-learning lessons with curriculum involving social, economic and educational issues that impact the school or surrounding community, as well as topics of diversity and working with parents. In addition, faculty can help preservice teachers develop a sense of how they will fit into the community of the school and gather important information that will help them when they form their own sense and style of teaching.
   
   Once a thorough understanding of the assessment process has been developed, teacher candidates can be presented with ideas for involving students in the assessment process. Although in many cases, the project will be primarily determined by the teacher and guided by curriculum needs, K-12 students should and can be involved in this very important first step. Through participation and decision making, students can become more committed to the project and will develop a sense of ownership and motivation that might not occur if they are left out at the beginning and simply told what the project will be. Some ideas for involving K-12 students in assessing the community to determine needs include brainstorming sessions, using disposable cameras to allow students to take pictures of things that they felt needed to be changed, and surveys conducted by students. Each of these activities can be connected to existing course and K-12 outcomes and implemented by teacher candidates during field experiences.

2. Project Development

   Once an assessment has been completed, faculty should focus teacher candidates on determining the service-learning project they would like to undertake with students Although it is most effective to have students involved in the decision making process, it is often easier for pre-service teachers to make this decision themselves for the first few projects and then work toward more student involvement as they have their own classroom. Once a project focus is decided upon, the following list of questions will help candidates begin to develop a project plan:
   
   
   • What academic areas can be included in the service learning project?
     
   • How much time will the project take?
     
   • What scheduling, cooperative teaching, and/or student grouping activities might need to be considered?
     
   • Will the project cost money and if so, where will it come from?
     
   • Will the principal/administration agree to the project and what do I need to do to check with them?
     
   • Will parents approve and how can I inform them of student involvement in the project?
     
     

3. Project Implementation

   At this stage, it may be productive for faculty to encourage teacher candidates to review the elements of high quality service learning and help them to consider their project in light of the elements. At Chico State, students participate in an exercise called "Removing the Constraints" where they try to design their service learning project as if they were developing it in a perfect world with no constraints. When the first part of the exercise is completed and they've thought through what they'd like to do, they begin to consider issues that will shape their project to best fit within school and classroom requirements. Some of the issues that need to be considered at this stage of project development are:
   
   
   • -Curricular integration: which curricular areas will fit with the project, and within those areas, which specific learning outcomes can be met?
     
   • -Time: class and school schedules, length of fieldwork experience and development of a project time line.
     
   • -Project logistics: transportation, administrative or cooperating teacher approval, parental notification, funding, and student pre-requisite knowledge and skills.
     
     
   Lastly, pre-service teachers need to plan opportunities for student reflection throughout project development and implementation in order to maximize critical thinking and decision making skills. In planning for this element of the project, candidates need to consider the age and developmental stage of the students in the project, varying reflection activities to address learning styles and needs of diverse learners and develop discussion questions that will stimulate feelings, thoughts and action.
   
   

4. Evaluation

   Evaluation is a critical component of project development and implementation. Faculty need to stress to students that although service learning can be seen as a valuable teaching strategy, it may not be appreciated or understood by some. Evaluation can provide valuable data to promote acceptance of service-learning in the educational community and will provide confirmation that curricular outcomes are being included in project planning and implementation.
   
   Teacher education candidates preparing a project evaluation plan should be directed to review project goals for all project participants, including students, community members and teachers. Examples of student goals might encompass academic, behavioral and social domains and tools should be designed to evaluate outcomes in all areas. Community members can be surveyed to evaluate the impact of the project on the community and teacher candidates are served by self reflection and self evaluation activities to determine how the development of the project helped them to meet education course and individual learning objectives.
   
   

5. Celebration

   Service-learning projects often culminate with a celebration where participants have the opportunity to share the work that they've
   accomplished and provide positive feedback about project outcomes. Whether the project involves elementary, middle or secondary students, teacher candidates should consider involving both the students involved in the service project and the community served in some kind of gathering to provide an environment for sharing and celebrating.
   
   In many cases, the celebration is part of project implemen tation, as when a middle school literature class presents holiday poems and stories to elderly citizens in a senior center. Once the presentation is complete, refreshments and opportunities for socialization might be provided. In other cases, at the end of the service project, a celebration could be held by the students providing service, as in the case of a second grade that raised money for animal books for the school library and then planned a classroom party to celebrate their accomplishment.

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